indicates that junior and senior high school students often struggle to enjoy their educational experiences. These students may

face difficulties while adjusting and may experience depression and anxiety. Therefore, governments worldwide are currently

implementing targeted policies to improve the well-being of young people.

The concept of psychological well-being is rooted in the philosophy of eudaimonia, which focuses on long-term happiness.

Multiple studies have indicated that psychological well-being is influenced by interactions between the self and society.

Individuals who perceive meaning and hope in their lives tend to experience improved psychological well-being through

self-worth and personal goals. Psychological well-being is a crucial psychological resource. Many researchers have recently

identified time perspectives as a key protective factor for well-being.

Time perspectives refers to an individual’s thoughts and feelings regarding their past, present, and future. It involves

awareness and monitoring of time and is a distinctive cognitive characteristic of humans. Altering time perspective can help

humans reconstruct their life experiences and adjust their motivation, leading to changes in cognition, emotions, and behaviors,

which are strongly linked to psychological well-being. Recently, the concept of temporal metacognition has attracted major

attention among researchers. Temporal metacognition involves three key aspects. The first aspect is metacognitive temporal

self-control, which is the ability to shift one’s time perspectives. The second aspect is cognitive reconstruction of the past, which

refers to reinterpreting past experiences. The third aspect is goal-oriented metatemporal interconnectedness, which refers to the

combination of different time perspectives to achieve specific goals. The central idea of temporal metacognition is the flexibility

of time awareness, which is identified as a key component for positive adaptation. People with strong temporal metacognition

can effectively shift their attention through flexible cognitive states, retrieve episodic memories in the present, and connect their

past, present, and future selves to respond to life’s demands.

Studies exploring the effects of time perspectives on well-being have predominantly focused on balanced time perspective

(BTP), revealing that BTP enhances well-being. People with BTP have greater well-being than do those who are immersed in a

specific time perspective (e.g., future or past time perspectives). Temporal metacognition, which builds upon the basic concepts

of BTP and further emphasizes humans’ cognitive flexibility and adaptive processes, may have a more pronounced effect on

well-being than BTP. The present study is a pioneering effort to study temporal metmetacognition in Taiwan. We hope that this

work will inspire and drive other researchers to devote greater efforts to this field.

Bulletin of Educational Psychology, 2024, 56(2), 453–476

National Taiwan Normal University, Taipei, Taiwan, R.O.C.

Inspiringly, multiple studies have suggested that self-identity mediates the relationship between temporal cognition and

psychological well-being. Self-identity is a complex psychological phenomenon that involves the construction of thoughts

and feelings regarding oneself. For adolescents, self-identity represents a fundamental developmental issue. Adolescents with

a strong self-identify can perceive continuity in their lives, leading to greater social adjustment and well-being. Self-identity

is formed through the organization of life experiences. Hence, temporal metacognition may play an important role in the

formation of self-identity. The ability to switch and organize time perspectives enables people to draw upon past experiences for

nourishment, finding motivation to keep living in the future and utilizing teachings from the past to equip themselves for a better

future.

In conclusion, the flexible transformation of different time perspectives represents a crucial mechanism for developing

a comprehensive self-identity. Temporal metacognition involves monitoring and reflecting upon time perspectives, enabling

people to reconstruct the past, enjoy the present, and plan for the future. This process connects different parts of an individual’s

life, enhancing their self-identity and psychological well-being. Therefore, in the study, a mediation model was established in

which adolescents’ self-identity mediates the relationship between temporal metacognition and psychological well-being.

Stratified sampling was used to recruit junior and senior high school students from public and private schools in Taiwan.

A total of 1,073 questionnaires were completed, with 1,058 valid responses. The sample comprised 570 girls and 488 boys.

Among the participants, 459 were junior high school students, and 599 were senior high school students. Three instruments

were developed: the Temporal Metacognition Scale, the Psychological Well-Being Scale, and the Self-Identity Scale. Each scale was evaluated using item analysis, exploratory factor analysis (EFA), and confirmatory factor analysis to ensure quality (CFA)

to ensure that the scales’ high measuring quality. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics, Pearson’s correlation analysis,

and mediation effect analysis by SPSS and Mplus.

Positive correlations were observed between temporal metacognition, psychological well-being, and self-identity. Selfidentity

partially mediated the relationship between temporal metacognition and psychological well-being. In other words, when

adolescents have better temporal metacognition, their psychological well-being can be enhanced through a more mature selfidentity.

Overall, the study provides recommendations and guidelines for future research and counseling practice.

Future studies should explore the applicability and dynamic features of temporal metacognition, examining its role as

a conditioning factor on variables such as time management and self-regulation. They should also examine how temporal

metacognition evolves over time or across developmental stages. Further research should seek to localize measurement tools

to better understand self-identity and well-being among Taiwanese adolescents. These tools should also be refined for relevant

variables. Adjusting the response format and contextual descriptions of the Temporal Metacognition Scale may prevent

production deficiencies and mitigate measurement bias.

At a practical level, junior and senior high school educators and counselors should guide adolescents in using temporal

metacognition to enhance their psychological well-being, connect with their past, present, and future selves, and develop a

more complete self-identity. Educators and counselors must be aware that self-identity is a multidimensional concept influenced

by factors such as family, society, peers, and country, all of which systematically affect adolescents. Therefore, supporting

the development of a sense of self among adolescents should not exclusively focus on the individuals themselves. Helping

adolescents value time and master the rhythm of life can aid in establishing a continuous self-identity and improving well-being.