The research sample was mainly selected through intentional sampling. Independent samples t tests and regression analyses were performed to analyze the collected data. The findings are as follows.

       (1) The children who participated in Hakka immersion programs scored higher for their attitudes toward the Hakka identity and cross-language culture relative to their nonparticipant counterparts, indicating that the children who participated in Hakka

immersion programs exhibited a stronger cross-language cultural attitude.

       (2) The children who participated in the Hakka immersion programs, regardless of whether they were located in Hakka or non-Hakka areas, exhibited significantly stronger attitudes toward the Hakka identity and cross-language culture relative to their nonparticipant counterparts. For attitudes toward the Hakka identity and cross-language culture, the children (preschool students) who participated in the Hakka immersion programs (i.e., the experimental group) scored significantly higher relative to the children who did not participate in such programs (i.e., the control group). This finding indicates that the Hakka immersion programs positively influenced the children’s attitudes toward the Hakka identity and cross-language culture, regardless of whether they were implemented in Hakka or non-Hakka areas.

        (3) Among the variables of age, gender, and group (participants vs. non-participants in Hakka immersion

programs), Hakka immersion was the most significant variable in predicting the attitudes of the children toward the Hakka identity and cross-language culture.

The results of the present study echo those of other international studies on immersion teaching. That is, immersion teaching has a positive effect on the perceptions and attitudes of students regarding a target language (Block & Vidaurre, 2019; Lindholm-Leary, 2011; Potowski, 2007). In addition, researchers have reported that in addition to competency in a target language, immersion teaching can enhance the multilingual and multicultural literacy of children because it exposes them to a multilingual and multicultural environment (de Jong & Howard, 2009; Feinauer & Howard, 2014; Lindholm-Leary, 2011). This finding was also reported in the present study; the children who participated in the Hakka immersion programs exhibited stronger attitudes toward the Hakka identity and cross-language culture relative to those who did not participate in such programs.

       The Hakka immersion programs had a positive effect on the attitudes of the children toward the Hakka identity and crosslanguage culture in both Hakka and non-Hakka areas. That is, when the Hakka immersion programs were implemented, the

community language culture created in the classrooms reduced the competition from the prevalent language (e.g., Mandarin) in family and community settings; consequently, the young children developed positive attitudes toward the Hakka identity. Furthermore, although studies have indicated that the developmental stage of children (e.g., age), their in-group preferences (e.g., gender), and their minority status (e.g., whether they are Hakka or not) can influence their identity and their language and cultural attitudes (Baker et al., 2016; Norton, 2010), the results of the present study reveal that the influence of these factors is nonsignificant when compared with the effects of participating in the Hakka immersion programs. Researchers have proposed several explanations for the aforementioned results. Cervantes-Soon (2014) argued that students judge the value and status of the language information provided by a school. Therefore, Hakka immersion programs can provide information that frames the Hakka language as positive and having an elevated linguistic status and thereby help children to form a positive Hakka identity. Furthermore, if preschools, families, and communities do not exhibit prejudice against either Hakka or Mandarin language, the use of both Hakka and Mandarin will not be perceived negatively by Taiwanese society.

          Oroujlou and Vahedi (2011) indicated that an individual’s attitude toward a language is closely associated with their motivation to learn the language. In Hakka immersion programs, teachers deliberately create a community environment in which Hakka is used. In such an environment, children who speak Hakka have more opportunities to receive rewards and positive feedback, which increases the children’s instrumental motivation. In addition, if young children wish to integrate into Hakka-speaking communities in a classroom setting, they will be motivated to learn Hakka. These integrative and instrumental motivations (Oroujlou & Vahedi, 2011). Finally, the two languages, Mandarin and Hakka, are linguistically and culturally similar such that the social distance between predominantly Mandarin- and Hakka-speaking communities is minimal. If teachers use positive and effective methods to implement Hakka immersion programs in a classroom setting and design engaging teaching activities, then the psychological distance from the Hakka language will be considerably reduced. Accordingly, the children will not reject or feel prejudice toward the Hakka language and culture (Gass, 2017).

        On the basis of the findings of the present study, the following suggestions are proposed for the practical promotion and research of Hakka cultural preservation. First, Hakka immersion programs should be continued and focused on cultivation of Hakka identity and language attitude as well as cross-language cultural competence. Language attitude is crucial to the success of bilingual education. Therefore, researchers focusing on international bilingual education not only study the language ability of learners but also their language attitude, language identity, and cross-cultural communication skills (Feinauer & Howard, 2014). Therefore, Hakka immersion programs should be focused on cultivating Hakka identity and the cross-language cultural attitudes of children and not solely on Hakka language ability. Hakka immersion programs should systematically and strategically cultivate appreciative attitudes and adaptability with respect to multilingualism and multicultural literacy. Hakka immersion programs are currently mostly implemented in areas where multiple ethnic groups live together, and the classes do not comprise a single Hakka group. Developing the multilingual and multicultural literacy of children is crucial. Educators who implement Hakka immersion programs must consider how they can teach students to recognize, respect, and appreciate other

ethnic groups and preserve Hakka language and culture. Second, in a Hakka immersion program, the status and identity of the Hakka language should be conscientiously managed.

         Norton (2010) highlighted that language is not solely a tool for communication; it is also used to convey information about status and identity. Effective immersion programs emphasize language hierarchy, culture, and identity management. Therefore, preschools that implement Hakka immersion programs should focus both on formal learning contexts and on the status and identity of the Hakka language in informal communication settings (e.g., outdoor activities and informal conversations).

Teachers should continually remain aware of the status and identity associated with different languages in different settings.

        They should also avoid endorsing bias and rigid stereotypes and should encourage children to develop multicultural literacy, respect other ethnic groups, and become aware of their own language and culture.

        Research should additionally focus on the development of teaching systems and evaluation mechanisms for fostering heritage language self-identity and cross-language cultural attitudes. Although Taiwan has promoted several heritage language immersion programs (e.g., Hakka immersion, Hokkien immersion, and aboriginal language immersion), the focus of teacher training and evaluation remains language oriented, and topics pertaining to self-identity and cross-language cultural attitudes remain overlooked. However, an essential aspect of heritage language education is the cultivation of self-identity and crosslanguage cultural attitudes (Daimari, 2015). Self-identity and cross-language cultural attitudes often influence an individual’s language use motivation and interactions with others (Feinauer & Howard, 2014; Genesee & Hamayan, 2016). Therefore, the cultivation of self-identity and positive cross-language cultural attitudes should be a primary goal in heritage language immersion programs. In Taiwan, the teaching resources for cultivating self-identity and cross-language cultural attitudes are limited, and few empirical studies have explored this topic. Therefore, educators and scholars specializing in heritage language preservation should focus on the self-identity and cross-language-cultural attitudes of learners and consider how they can construct a teaching system and evaluation mechanism that supports the development of a positive self-identity and positive cross-language cultural attitudes among learners.