With rapid advancements in technology, digital tools and the Internet have become integral to human life. These
technologies have not only facilitated payment, education, and entertainment but also transformed patterns of interpersonal
communication and interaction. The family serves as a vital space for a child’s socialization, both into societal norms and the
specific practices of their family (Korniichuk & Oliinyk, 2022). Internet technologies can be used to address challenges in
parenting practices (Clark, 2011), particularly during adolescence. However, most studies on these technologies have focused on
Western instead of Asian contexts. Building on the work of Chao et al. (1994) and others regarding Chinese families, this study
explored parental discipline in a Chinese cultural framework, referred to as guan-chiao to distinguish it from Western parenting
models. This study examined the effects of guan-chiao on parent–child relationships and investigated the role of digital
interaction in improving these relationships. In addition, differences in mechanisms underlying these effects between male and
female adolescents were analyzed.
According to Smetana (2006), a parent’s disciplinary approach should vary depending on the specific domain of a child’s
life. For instance, parents might adopt a more laissez-faire approach to areas perceived by children as personal, such as leisure
activities or social relationships. Strict control in these domains often leads to resistance because children view such matters as
their own personal affairs. By contrast, parents should be more actively involved in guiding their children’s moral and social
development, including ethical behavior, respect for others, and adherence to social norms. Social learning theory suggests that
children model their behavior after that of their parents, making it essential for parents to exemplify the qualities they wish to
instill in their children.
Because different areas of a child’s life present distinct issues, children may respond differently to parental discipline
in differing domains. Studies have reported the importance of parents adopting tailored disciplinary methods for different
areas when interacting with their children (Smetana, 2006). The tension between a child’s desire for autonomy and a parent’s
responsibility to socialize their child into becoming a responsible member of society leads to parent–child conflict, particularly
in guan-chiao. However, values instruction presents an opportunity for fostering positive parent–child relationships. Digital
interaction can help bridge gaps caused by limited face-to-face interaction between parents and children, offering low
immediacy and high media richness. Therefore, this study hypothesized that digital interaction mediates the effects of guanchiao
on the parent–child relationship. Specifically, digital interaction mitigates negative effects in the domain of lifestyle
choices and enhances positive effects in the domain of values instruction.
This study used data from the 2022 Taiwan Assessment of Student Achievement: Longitudinal Study, conducted by the National Academy for Educational Research. The sample included 5430 ninth-grade students (2,454 girls and 2,976 boys) who provided complete responses. These students rated their perception of parental strictness on a 10-item guan-chiao scale, which assessed domains such as clothing, appearance, style, curfew regulations, attitude toward older adults, and sense of responsibility. Responses were recorded on a 4-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 (not strict at all) to 4 (very strict). The results of principal axis factor analysis revealed that the guan-chiao construct comprises two domains: discipline regarding lifestyle and values instruction. Adolescents reported that their parents placed greater emphasis on “values instruction” than on “discipline regarding lifestyle.” Items related to digital interaction measured the frequency of digital media interactions between adolescents and their parents. These items included statements such as “I interact with my parents on social media,” “I send photos or messages to my parents on social media,” “My parents are with me when I go online,” “I chat with my parents about interesting events or incidents happening online,” and “My parents and I discuss our use of the Internet and what we have experienced online.” Responses were rated on a 4-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (never) to 4 (often), with higher scores indicating more frequent digital interactions between parents and adolescents. Items assessing parent–child relationships were used to determine how adolescents feel regarding their interactions with their parents. Questions included “How do you get along with your parents?” as well as items such as “Being criticized or blamed,” “Being understood and affirmed,” and “Being cared for.” These responses were also rated on a 4-point Likert scale from 1 (never) to 4 (often). Factor analysis indicated that these items could be grouped into two factors: warmth (three items) and tension (two items). According to structural equation modeling (SEM) analysis, both the direct-effect and mediated-effect models had good fit. For the direct-effect model, the fit indices were (234, N = 5,430) = 2,675.89, p < .001, comparative fit index (CFI) = .95, Tucker–Lewis index (TLI) = .95, root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) = .05, and standardized root mean square residual (SRMR) = .05. The mediated-effect model had similar fit indices: (234, N = 5,430) = 2,675.89, p < .001, CFI = .95, TLI = .95, RMSEA = .04, and SRMR = .04. The results revealed that greater guan-chiao in the lifestyle domain was associated with a warmer parent–child relationship (β = -.16, p < .001) but also with a higher level of tension (β = .33, p < .001). Digital interaction mediated the effect of guan-chiao on parent–child relationship, specifically reducing tension caused by lifestyle-domain discipline (β = -.02, p < .001) and enhancing the warmth associated with values instruction (β = .04, p < .001). Furthermore, the SEM analysis indicated that the mechanisms underlying the relationships between guan-chiao, digital interaction, and parent–child relationships differed between boys and girls. The results can be summarized as follows. Greater discipline in the lifestyle domain is associated with a less warm and more conflictual parent–child relationship. However, this negative effect is mitigated by a higher level of digital interaction. By contrast, discipline in the values instruction domain is associated with warmer and less conflictual relationships, and this positive effect is enhanced by a higher level of digital interaction. Overall, a higher level of digital interaction is consistently associated with a warmer and less conflictual parent–child relationship in both domains. The relationships between these factors differed between boys and girls. For boys, values instruction strengthened a warmth-based parent–child relationship through digital interaction. However, digital interaction did not significantly affect the relationship between lifestyle discipline and a tension-based parent–child relationship. By contrast, for girls, digital interaction reduced tension in the parent–child relationship associated with lifestyle discipline but did not mediate the relationship between values instruction and the parent–child relationship. Parents and educators should distinguish between discipline related to values and that related to lifestyle preferences. They should also understand the potential impacts of discipline on parent–child relationships across the genders. To view and use digital technology positively, they should engage in open conversations with their children regarding their use of the Internet. Increasing digital interactions at various stages of a child’s development can positively affect the parent–child relationship and compensate for limited face-to-face interactions. Future research could benefit from collecting longitudinal or parent–child dyadic data to further investigate the mechanisms through which discipline, digital interaction, and the parent–child relationship affects each other. This approach would provide valuable insights into the dynamic processes underlying these mechanisms and offer clearer guidance on fostering positive digital interactions between parents and children. |
Adolescents’ Perceptions of Parental Guan-Chiao and Parent–Child Relationships: Mediating Role of Parent– Child Digital Interaction
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