However, perfectionism also has a dark side, often characterized by setting excessively high standards for oneself and others

and viewing any deviation from these standards as complete failure (Hollender, 1965). Thus, in recent years, researchers have

adopted a multidimensional approach to study perfectionism and its influence. Frost et al. (1993) further divided perfectionism

into six dimensions and then categorized them into two higher order factors: Adaptive perfectionism (i.e. high personal

standards and organization) and maladaptive perfectionism (encompassing perceptions of heightened parental expectations and

criticism, concern over making mistakes, and doubting of the quality of one’s actions) .

In Taiwan, studies on perfectionism among adolescents have focused on its repercussions on self-esteem, happiness,

learning difficulties, and academic burnout (Chang, 2019; Fang, 2012; Su & Tai, 2008). However, only a few studies have

explored the intricate relationship between perfectionism and emotions, with most focusing on negative emotional states (Su &

Tai, 2008). Positive emotions play a pivotal role in enhancing cognitive flexibility, fostering motivation, cultivating enduring

personal resources, and augmenting overall happiness (Fredrickson, 2001). Individuals exhibiting a higher degree of adaptive

perfectionism, in their pursuit of excellence, are also likely to experience heightened positive emotions. Such positive affective

states aid perfectionistic adolescents in accumulating personal resources and attaining their goals more easily. Accordingly,

this study hypothesizes that the different dimensions of perfectionism may have varying effects on the emotional well-being of

adolescents.

Furthermore, the type of perfectionism exhibited depends on the cultural background of the adolescent. Although the

perception of high parental criticism may incite more negative emotions among Taiwanese adolescents, research has indicated

that the cultural norm of parental aspirations for their children to excel may not necessarily yield detrimental effects. Notably,

Taiwanese adolescents´ perception of high parental expectations has been demonstrated to be significantly and positively correlated with positive attributes such as diligence and honesty, rather than with negative conditions such as depression and anxiety (Hong et al., 2011). This underscores the inadequacy of applying the same high-order two-factor model of perfectionism as adopted in Western studies (Affrunti & Woodruff-Borden, 2015; Chang et al., 2004; Stoeber et al., 2014) to a Taiwanese (or East Asian) context.

     As highlighted by Adler, perfectionism is an ongoing journey characterized by the perpetual pursuit of improvement; thus, individuals must continually adapt to transformations around them. This study examines how resilience serves as a mediator in the relationship between perfectionism and positive and negative emotions among adolescents. Resilience, defined as the ability to overcome adversity and effectively adjust to life´s challenges (Werner, 1989, 1995), holds potential to mitigate negative

emotions in individuals experiencing significant stressors (Ong et al., 2006).

The resilience of perfectionists in the face of stressors helps them cope and may even induce positive emotions (Smith,

2014). By contrast, an excessive fixation on mistakes was demonstrated to diminish resilience (Harrington, 2019). Furthermore,

behaviors such as a reluctance to modify or adapt unattainable goals and a reluctance to seek assistance from others in problemsolving

can worsen the stress or difficulties faced by the perfectionist, leading to adverse outcomes (Hewitt & Flett, 1991, 2002).

However, studies that have used resilience as a mediating variable have mostly employed high-order two-factor models

(Harrington, 2019; Smith, 2014) to simplify the distinction between adaptive and maladaptive perfectionism. These studies

frequently overlook the crucial dimension of parental expectations in the context of Taiwanese culture. Lin et al. (2006) found

that when parental expectations are characterized by care, support, and respect, they can bolster the resilience of adolescents in

confronting and overcoming adversities. Therefore, considering the nuances that are specific to Taiwanese culture, this study

hypothesizes that the dimension of parental expectations in perfectionism among Taiwanese adolescents may not necessarily

undermine their resilience, contrary to the perspective of maladaptive perfectionism as classified by Frost et al. (1993) and other

researchers.

This study adopted Frost et al.’s (1990) six-factor perfectionism model and aimed to investigate how resilience functions

as a mediator in the complex relationship between perfectionism and the emotions of adolescents. We sought to offer a more

comprehensive understanding of how various dimensions of perfectionism interact with resilience and emotions within the

Taiwanese cultural context. This study predicted that high personal standards, organizational skills, and perception of high

parental expectations would positively predict resilience, subsequently increasing the mental well-being of perfectionist

adolescents. Conversely, perception of high parental criticism, concern over making mistakes, and self-doubt regarding the

quality of one’s actions were anticipated to diminish resilience, thereby fostering more negative emotions and less positive

emotions among individuals .

The study involved a total of 1175 participants, comprising junior high (56.9%), high school (24.3%), and vocational

school students (18.8%) from the southern region of Taiwan. The measurement instruments used in this study included the

Chinese version of the Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (Chen et al., 2011), the Inventory of Adolescent Resilience (Chan

et al., 2009), and the Chinese version of the Positive and Negative Affect Scale (Teng & Chang, 2006). The reliability analysis

indicated high internal consistency among all the scales, with a Cronbach’s α exceeding .81. Data analysis was performed using

SPSS PROCESS macro v.3.5 (Hayes, 2012) with bootstrapping to examine the mediation effects of resilience.

The findings of this study indicate that high personal standards and organizational skills positively influence resilience.

This underscores the importance of examining how each dimension relates to resilience and emotional well-being. In Frost et

al.’s (1990) framework of perfectionism, organizational skills pertain to an individual’s ability to execute tasks in an orderly and

contextually sensitive manner, indicative of favorable habits that are less likely to engender feelings of loss of control or defeat

(Chen et al., 2011). However, personal standards refer to adolescents establishing excessively high and unattainable goals for

themselves, which may potentially evoke anxiety following repeated failures (Stoeber et al., 2014). Hence, adolescents endowed

with organizational skills and positive habits may be better equipped to systematically analyze problems and devise planned

solutions when confronted with stress and adversity. This, in turn, may yield heightened positive emotions and decreased

negative emotions owing to the sense of accomplishment derived from overcoming challenges.

Resilience serves as a partial mediator in the relationship between concern over making mistakes and positive and negative

emotions. Individuals characterized by the trait of concern over making mistakes tend to perceive errors as failures and

engage in self-criticism, harboring worries about a perceived lack of esteem from others. This observation is consistent with

previous studies on socially prescribed perfectionism, which have demonstrated that an excessive emphasis on meeting others’expectations is detrimental to an individual’s resilience (Klibert et al., 2014; Smith, 2014). Additionally, resilience fully mediates the relationship between self-doubt regarding the quality of one’s actions and positive emotions, while partially mediating this relationship with negative emotions. Individuals prone to doubting their actions tend to focus more on self-doubt and invest significant time in scrutinizing the correctness of their behaviors. These persistent concerns about making mistakes not only diminish resilience but also impede an individual’s ability to experience positive emotions (such as interest, enthusiasm, and concentration) during their actions.

     Resilience mediated the effects of the parental perfectionism dimension. Despite the relatively weak magnitude of these

mediation effects, parental expectations induced more positive adaptation but parental criticism induced more negative

adaptation. Frost et al. (1990) categorized the perception of high parental expectations as being part of the dimension of

maladaptive perfectionism. However, Teng (2017) argued in a Taiwanese study that when adolescents perceive their parents as

having expectations for them, they may feel valued and respected by their parents. They may also internalize these expectations

and, thus, foster feelings of hope and optimism about the future. Moreover, we found supporting evidence that for Taiwanese

adolescents, perfectionism regarding parental expectations may bolster their resilience and emotional well-being. This may

be because parental expectations may foster resilience (which may involve traits such as motivation and hope), enabling adolescents to more effectively overcome stress or adversity. Consequently, adolescents are inclined to experience increased levels of positive emotions and decreased levels of negative emotions. Conversely, regarding the perception of high parental criticism, this study aligns with previous studies, which indicated that severe parental criticism may undermine adolescents´ resilience, making it more challenging for adolescents to cope with stress.