satisfaction. Some individuals use strategies such as emotional suppression to avoid conflicts with their partners. Others feel

afraid and reluctant to express their emotions, which may adversely affect their intimate relationship satisfaction. King and

Emmons (1990) described this conflict between the desire and reluctance to express emotions as ambivalence over emotional

expression (AEE). According to many studies, AEE can influence marital satisfaction or relationship quality, with observed

gender differences in this influence. In Taiwan, AEE is significantly higher among male college students than among their

female counterparts. Statistical methods commonly used in the past may have contributed to differences in results, and therefore,

the current study used the actor–partner interdependence model (APIM) to analyze dyadic data. This approach enables

comprehensive examination of associations between the latent variables of partners. Two factors of AEE were identified, namely

emotional rumination and emotional suppression, and these factors were examined within different cultural contexts.

The primary objectives of this study were twofold: to understand the differences in AEE (i.e., emotional rumination and

emotional suppression) between adult partners of different genders and to explore how the individual AEE of these partners

affects their perceived relationship satisfaction and their partners’ evaluation of their relationship satisfaction. Additionally,

the study identified potential reasons underlying variations in research results between cross-cultural studies. To achieve these

objectives, this study proposed the following hypotheses. First, AEE is significantly higher among Taiwanese male individuals

in premarital relationships than among their female counterparts (H1). Second, in premarital partner relationships, individual

AEE is a predictor of the individual’s relationship satisfaction (H2). Third, in premarital partner relationships, individual AEE

can predict partner relationship satisfaction (H3).

An online questionnaire was distributed on relevant community platforms. Demographic and research data were collected

using self-reported questionnaires. Each questionnaire included the Ambivalence Over Emotional Expressiveness questionnaire

(Lee & Lin, 2006) and the Relationship Assessment Scale (Ho, 2004). The APIM (Kenny & Ledermann, 2010) and structural

equation modeling were used as statistical methods to analyze dyadic data. A total of 207 premarital couples were included and

completed a total of 414 valid questionnaires. The participants were heterosexual couples, were aged 20 years or older, were

unmarried, and had been in a stable relationship for more than 3 months. The median age was 25 to 29 years (50.5%), with a

median relationship duration of 25 to 36 months (14.5%). The following research conclusions were drawn.

First, in premarital relationships in Taiwan, men exhibit higher levels of AEE than do women. This trend is observed even

when AEE is separately analyzed as emotional rumination and emotional suppression, indicating a consistent pattern of higher ambivalence among male partners in Taiwan.

Second, emotional rumination in romantic relationships may lead to a vicious cycle that negatively affects relationship

satisfaction. For both men and women, personal emotional rumination reduces self-reported relationship satisfaction. In

romantic relationships, individuals who frequently ruminate on their emotional expression behaviors, including worrying about

expressing emotions, regretting emotional expression, or feeling indecisive regarding emotional expression, may experience low

self-reported relationship satisfaction. Therefore, reducing emotional rumination in scenarios that require emotional expression

may mitigate the negative effects of worrying and imagination. Alternatively, adopting different emotion regulation strategies,

such as seeking social support, may aid in reducing personal emotional rumination, thereby enhancing relationship satisfaction.

Third, at the individual level, for both men and women, personal emotional suppression positively predicts self-reported

relationship satisfaction. Therefore, for premarital couples, although withholding emotions contributes to increased personal

satisfaction with intimate relationships, emotional rumination has a negative effect on relationship satisfaction. Furthermore,

emotional suppression has a positive effect on self-reported relationship satisfaction. At the dyadic level, neither male nor

female emotional expression inconsistency can predict the degree of relationship satisfaction among partners. In other words,

no partner effect is observed between male or female emotional expression inconsistency and partner relationship satisfaction.

Therefore, emotional suppression may have both positive and negative effects on relationship satisfaction. These findings differ

from those of other international studies, presumably because of the differences between Eastern and Western cultures and

differences in study populations. Unlike Western populations, Taiwanese individuals may perceive temporary suppression of

emotions as contributing to relational harmony, and therefore, such suppression may not affect their relationship satisfaction.

Therefore, the present authors hypothesized that within Taiwanese culture, AEE includes the subconcepts of both emotional

rumination and emotional suppression, with each subconcept having a unique effect on relationship satisfaction. Moreover, the

participants in this study were unmarried. Unlike married couples, premarital couples are typically in the stage of emerging

adulthood, aged 18 to 29 years old, which represents nearly 87% of the sample in this study. Arnett (2000) characterizes

individuals in this stage as emphasizing commitment more in romantic relationships compared to adolescence. They often have

longer and more stable relationships but aren’t influenced by roles like spouses or parents. Additionally, for married couples,

their longer time together usually leads to closer relationships. A longitudinal study concluded that emotional suppression has

no significant effect on marital satisfaction in long-term relationships. Instead, higher levels of emotional contagion are the

primary determinant of marital satisfaction. This phenomenon may be attributed to spouses naturally synchronizing each other’s

emotions, thereby moderating the association between initial emotional regulation strategies and marital satisfaction. However,

when emotional contagion levels are low, emotional regulation strategies positively affect marital satisfaction (Mazzuca et al.,

2019). This finding explains why the effect of emotional suppression on relationship satisfaction differs between premarital

couples and married couples. Therefore, the present authors hypothesized that compared to married couples, premarital couples

have lower degree of emotional contagion, and the effect of emotional suppression on relationship satisfaction is emphasized.

Fourth, for both men and women, the effect of emotional rumination and emotional suppression on partner relationship

satisfaction is nonsignificant, and the causation between AEE and partner relationship satisfaction has not been proven.

Because this study primarily involved participants aged between 20 and 29 years, caution must be exercised in attempting

to generalize the research findings. According to the findings of this study, for both men and women, individual AEE cannot

predict partner relationship satisfaction. However, whether this phenomenon occurs because partners fail to perceive individual

AEE or because they perceive it but fail to predict relationship satisfaction remains unclear. Therefore, further research is

required to determine whether perceived partner AEE is a mediator in the association between individual AEE and partner

relationship satisfaction.

According to the current research findings, practitioners should consider gender differences when analyzing the effect

of AEE on partner relationships. In addition, in the early stages of a relationship, men should remain aware of whether their

emotional expressions are perceived to be contradictory by their partners. Furthermore, in couples counseling, promoting the

expression of thoughts and feelings regarding the relationship and fostering active listening may mitigate AEE and thereby

potentially enhance relationship satisfaction for both partners.

In premarital counseling for relationship challenges, practitioners should help their clients explore their difficulties,

hesitations, or fears associated with emotional expression in romantic relationships. They should also discuss patterns of emotional rumination or use cognitive therapy to help their clients understand the connections between emotions, thoughts, and

behaviors. This approach can increase the levels of awareness toward individual emotional rumination and effectively limit its

negative effect on relationship satisfaction.

If clients choose to use emotional suppression as an “inflexible” emotion regulation strategy, practitioners should explore

the timing, frequency, duration, and type of suppressed emotions. They should also help their clients understand both the

interaction patterns and the positive contributions and compromises made by each partner in the relationship. Although

individual emotional suppression may have a positive effect on personal relationship satisfaction, practitioners should be aware

of whether their clients can communicate and discuss negative emotional events with their partners later. Doing so can improve

relationship satisfaction over time.

In summary, for unmarried couples in Taiwan, AEE can be divided into emotional rumination and emotional suppression,

with each subconcept having a unique effect on relationship satisfaction. Further research is required to investigate the effect of

emotional rumination and emotional suppression on relationship satisfaction among married couples.