attention has been paid to human–robot interactions. The integration of technology into counseling is an emerging trend.

However, practitioners have few opportunities to familiarize themselves with chatbots. Additionally, the lack of supporting

empirical evidence and the challenges involved in selecting an appropriate chatbot from abundant options pose considerable

difficulties that must be overcome. Various robotics science theories have been proposed to describe human interactions with

chatbots, particularly mental health-care robots. These robots mainly involve the establishment of caregiving relationships

through virtual avatars, data collection, care planning, and health information provision. A widely applied theory related to

chatbot interaction is the technology acceptance model, which posits that understanding the reasons why users accept or reject

new information systems can explain their intention to use such systems. User experience, which emphasizes a user-centered

approach to interactions with products, is influenced by the interactions between the user’s internal state, system design, and

external environment. The present study explored the emotional, cognitive, and behavioral dimensions of chatbot use from the

perspective of user experience.

In recent decades, smart technology has been increasingly applied to clinical psychology. Most currently available

chatbots focus on psychoeducation or symptom monitoring, serving only as self-help tools for psychotherapy. Woebot is a

widely used mental health chatbot that was developed by psychologist Alison Darcy in 2016 on the basis of the principles of

cognitive behavioral therapy. It can be downloaded to computers and smartphones. The present study used Woebot to explore

the experiences of chatbot users. Compared with face-to-face services provided by human therapists, chatbots offer several

advantages that have promoted great interest in their development and use. Chatbots are becoming increasingly accessible;

they can be accessed through not only computers but also smartphones, allowing therapy recipients to circumvent the stigma

associated with psychotherapy. Chatbots do not take breaks or require appointments to be scheduled, are unaffected by

geographical and transportation constraints, and are generally free or low-cost, making them an affordable mental health

resource. However, studies have identified several differences and limitations associated with chatbot services relative to

services provided by human therapists.

The present qualitative study conducted semi-structured interviews and analyzed the collected data by applying coding in

grounded theory, which is suitable for discerning processes and inner experiences. This theory is applicable with our objective

of examining experiences of using Woebot and the contextual relationships underlying such experiences. Because of the lack

of research on the appropriateness of chatbots developed on the basis of psychotherapy from user perspectives, the present

Bulletin of Educational Psychology, 2024, 56(1), 45–72

National Taiwan Normal University, Taipei, Taiwan, R.O.C. study aimed to provide a clearer understanding of the experiences of Woebot users from various backgrounds and to identify

the differences between them. The author, who has a Ph.D. in counseling psychology, is experienced in using Woebot and

conducting qualitative research.

In the present study, convenience and purposive sampling was applied to recruit 10 participants—3 men and 7 women—

through social media platforms, social media applications, and recruitment posters. The participants used Woebot for 14

days, completing a total of 14 sessions. The participants were aged 20–31 years (mean age, 26 years) and comprised three

undergraduate students and seven graduate students. The research instruments comprised a demographic information form,

interview outlines, recording devices, and Woebot. The demographic information form was used to collect information such

as the participants’ name, gender, age, total hours of individual counseling received, age of first exposure to the Internet, and

duration of daily smartphone use (measured in hours). The interview questions focused on unique experiences, feelings, and

thoughts formed during interactions with Woebot. Differences in the ending conversations with Woebot compared with faceto-

face counseling were determined. Moreover, this study provided overall impressions and suggestions regarding the use of

chatbots in counseling.

The research process was as follows. In the preparation phase, the research objective and questions and the types of data

to be collected were determined. Individuals who met the inclusion criteria were recruited, briefed on the study’s purpose and

procedures, and asked to sign informed consent forms. The study design involved the daily use of Woebot for 2 weeks. During

the data collection phase, screenshots of the participants’ interactions with Woebot, verbatim transcripts of these screenshots,

and individual interview transcripts were collected. These were transcribed into Microsoft Word documents to facilitate data

retrieval and reference. Data analysis was performed on the basis of coding in grounded theory, which involved examining

and reading the collected data to derive preliminary concepts. Each sentence was analyzed individually to segment the data

and to derive categories and subcategories. Axial coding was then performed to link these categories and subcategories to

form themes. The titles for the coding results were generated on the basis of individual interview transcripts. Subsequently,

relevant conversation screenshots and transcript content were extracted and used as evidence. To avoid introducing bias into

the coding process, the author invited a coanalyst to conduct data analysis. During the analysis, multiple data sources were

used for triangulation. Each interview transcript was coded individually, and the results of the study participants from different

backgrounds were verified and compared using selected screenshots depicting the usage of Woebot.

The study results indicated that prior to using mental health chatbots, the participants exhibited different attitudes

toward them. During chatbot use, positive feedback, negative feedback, and changing opinions were observed among the

participants. The results also highlighted various problems encountered by the participants, such as predefined options limiting

the participants’ options and expression, the awkwardness associated with not knowing when the conversation had ended,

discrepancies in information on coronavirus disease 2019 between the United States and Taiwan, logical but unrealistic

interactions, and meditation activities being temporarily inaccessible because of misunderstandings. The participants reported

both positive and negative thoughts and opinions about the use of Woebot. They were positive about the chatbot’s ability

to provide immediate and long-term companionship, usefulness as a real counseling aid, provision of engaging videos that

increase usage motivation, and provision of guidance and constructive suggestions about current events. They were negative

about the lack of sufficient emotional support and the limited ability of the chatbot to understand topics due to language and

cultural differences. The participants indicated that using Woebot led to beneficial cognitive, behavioral, and emotional changes.

Cognitively, the participants reported changes in their thoughts, more opportunities to think, and more rational thoughts

under the guidance of the chatbot. Behaviorally, Woebot assisted the participants in practicing mindfulness. Emotionally, the

participants felt that the most substantial benefit of using the chatbot was emotional improvement, and they did not always

clearly recognize the changes in their cognition. For Woebot-related research and development, the participants suggested

increasing the alignment of Woebot with the real-life counseling experiences, habits, and emotional needs of users; providing

more than just predefined options; enabling more coherent and continuous interactions; and adding voice functions. With these

improvements, the chatbot can be more effectively integrated into counseling services, thus providing a more realistic user

experience.

In summary, the present study revealed that although most participants perceived Woebot as a novel and entertaining tool,

their experience was associated with various problems that affected their mood and conversation outcomes, such as the lack of emotional empathy, the feeling that their uniqueness as a client was not acknowledged, and language and cultural barriers.

These challenges also highlighted that both chatbots and human counseling are limited by the strengths and weaknesses of their

underlying theoretical frameworks. Users expect chatbots to more closely align with the standards of human counseling and to

use their native languages, emphasizing the need for establishing a database that considers cultural differences.

We suggest that current chatbots should be used only as a support tool for counseling to help foster rational thought patterns

and habits, which can aid in transforming behaviors and alleviating negative emotions. For patients who require considerable

emotional venting, the theoretical fit should be considered during the selection of a chatbot or other intervention methods. Future

studies should investigate chatbot developers or participants from diverse groups to understand their objectives, philosophies,

and experiences with chatbot development. Future consent forms for chatbot studies should include provisions prohibiting

chatbot manipulation to reduce the time and effort required to address its disruptive effects. For the future development or

enhancement of chatbots, advancements in voice recognition technology should be incorporated into chatbots. Moreover,

button-based chatbot text conversations should be expanded to include voice-based chatbots, thereby enabling more humanized

interactions. Additionally, chatbots based on various therapeutic approaches can be developed to meet the needs of various types

of patients. Databases can also be expanded to incorporate diverse cultural contexts to align more closely with the cultures and

life experiences of users. This expansion aims at enhancing the positive feelings of users and the sense that they are understood

by a chatbot while using it.